The warrior patron. Julius II, a Pope who understood politics but who ultimately paved the way for Luther

1 November 1503. At the end of a brief conclave, Julius II – Giuliano della Rovere, a native of Liguria – was elected, and several ambassadors announced the result before the official announcement. The nephew of Sixtus IV, he had been set on the path to an ecclesiastical career by his uncle through his appointment as a cardinal and the entrusting of numerous posts to him. He had such serious disagreements with Rodrigo Borgia that he left Rome when the latter became Pope Alexander VI. A controversial figure, emblematic of many aspects of the Renaissance papacy, he – already a cardinal and bishop – had an illegitimate daughter, Felice, who became Lady of Bracciano by marrying an Orsini. Energetic and endowed with remarkable organisational skills, he expanded and consolidated the Papal States through successful political and military initiatives: he was known as ‘the Warrior Pope’ and personally led armies into battle. He is remembered above all for his patronage: he entrusted Bramante with the design for the new St Peter’s Basilica, intended to replace the ancient Constantinian basilica; he commissioned Michelangelo to paint the frescoes on the vault of the Sistine Chapel (which had been built by his uncle, Sixtus IV); and he commissioned Raphael to decorate the loggias of the papal palace. To finance the construction of the new basilica, Julius II allocated to the building site the inheritances of those who died at the Roman court; he sought contributions from kings, princes and nobles; and, above all, with the papal bull of 12 February 1507—which was renewed several times—he introduced the so-called ‘sale of indulgences’: the faithful were given the opportunity (permitted by some theologians) to obtain remission of their punishments, following sacramental confession of their sins, including through monetary donations. The spiritual significance of indulgences was soon overshadowed, in common practice and in the public consciousness, by the belief that this was effectively a financial transaction designed to cover the costs of building the new basilica and to sustain the curia’s territorial policy and princely lifestyle. Within a few years, such practices would contribute to the emergence and spread of the Protestant Reformation led by Martin Luther.

2 November 1389. Boniface IX, Pietro Tomacelli of Naples, was elected, whilst the ‘Western Schism’ had been ongoing for more than ten years; this had arisen at the time of the popes’ definitive return to Rome from Avignon following the election of an antipope. Boniface too faced opposition from two antipopes. He did not have much political experience; however, endowed with a strong personality and a practical mind, he was able to re-establish papal authority in many regions of Europe. In Rome, he reorganised the municipal government, effectively bringing an end to the free commune by placing it under the control of the Senator’s office. He then had parts of the defensive structure of Castel Sant’Angelo rebuilt and reinforced; these had been seriously damaged fifteen years earlier during a popular uprising against the French garrison stationed there.